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Need Help in writing a Research proposal
Sun Aug 19, 2012 6:31 am by The Students Forum(TSF)
How Do You Write a Research Proposal for Academic Writing
If you are in college then one of the many questions on your mind may be, how do you write a research proposal for academic writing. To write an academic research proposal is most likened to writing a proposal that addresses a project. The only difference is that the research proposal has either academic or scientific research at the …
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If you are in college then one of the many questions on your mind may be, how do you write a research proposal for academic writing. To write an academic research proposal is most likened to writing a proposal that addresses a project. The only difference is that the research proposal has either academic or scientific research at the …
[ Full reading ]
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How to write your Thesis
The Students Forum :: The Students Forum Academic Writing Service-Get Academic and Business Writing Help :: Essay & Dissertation Writing Tips
Page 1 of 1
How to write your Thesis
How to Write Your Thesis
compiled by Kim Kastens, Stephanie Pfirman, Martin Stute, Bill Hahn,
Dallas Abbott, and Chris Scholz
I. Thesis structure
Title Page
Title (including subtitle), author, institution, department, date of
delivery, research mentor(s) and advisor, their instututions and
email adresses
List of Figures
List page numbers of all figures.
The list should include a short title for each figure but not the
whole caption.
List of Tables
List page numbers of all tables.
The list should include a short title for each table but not the
whole caption.
Introduction
You can't write a good introduction until you know what the body of
the paper says. Consider writing the introductory section(s) after
you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before.
Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction.
This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to
motivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an
important/interesting scientific problem that your paper either
solves or addresses. You should draw the reader in and make them
want to read the rest of the paper.
The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous
research in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or
ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most
recent and relevant work. You should then go on to explain why
more work was necessary (your work, of course.)
Note: Results vs. Discussion Sections
Quarantine your observations from your interpretations. The writer
must make it crystal clear to the reader which statements are
observation and which are interpretation. In most circumstances,
this is best accomplished by physically separating statements about
new observations from statements about the meaning or significance
of those observations. Alternatively, this goal can be accomplished
by careful use of phrases such as "I infer ..." vast bodies of
geological literature became obsolete with the advent of plate
tectonics; the papers that survived are those in which observations
were presented in stand-alone fashion, unmuddied by whatever ideas
the author might have had about the processes that caused the
observed phenomena.
II. Crosscutting Issues
What Are We Looking For?
We are looking for a critical analysis. We want you to answer a
scientific question or hypothesis. We would like you to gather
evidence -- from various sources -- to allow you to make
interpretations and judgments. Your approach/methods should be
carefully designed to come to closure. Your results should be
clearly defined and discussed in the context of your topic. Relevant
literature should be cited. You should place your analysis in a
broader context, and highlight the implications (regional, global,
etc.) of your work. We are looking for a well-reasoned line of
argument, from your initial question, compilation of relevant
evidence, setting data in a general/universal context, and finally
making a judgment based on your analysis. Your thesis should be
clearly written and in the format described below.
Planning Ahead for Your Thesis
If at all possible, start your thesis research during the summer
between your junior and senior year - or even earlier - with an
internship, etc. ... then work on filling in background material and
lab work during the fall so that you're prepared to write and
present your research during the spring . The best strategy is to
pick a project that you are interested in, but also that a faculty
member or other professional is working on. This person will become
your research mentor and this gives you someone to talk with and get
background material from. If you're unsure about the selection of a
project, let us know and we'll try to connect you with someone.
Skimming vs. Reading
Because of the literature explosion, papers more skimmed than read.
Skimming involves reading the abstract, and looking at the figures
and figure captions. Therefore, you should construct your paper so
that it can be understood by skimming, i.e., the conclusions, as
written in your abstract, can be understood by study of the figures
and captions. The text fills out the details for the more interested
reader.
Giving Credit
How does one fairly and accurately indicate who has made what
contributions towards the results and interpretations presented in
your paper?: by referencing, authorship, and acknowledgements.
Different types of errors:
Check references carefully and reread reference works prior to
publication. The first time you read something, you will consciously
remember some things, but may subconsciously take in other aspects.
It is important to cross check your conscious memory against your
citations.
See also:
D. Kennedy, 1985, On Academic Authorship
Sigma Xi, 1984, Honor in Science
Yale University pamphlet on plagiarism
III. Editing Your Thesis
Even a rough draft should be edited.
compiled by Kim Kastens, Stephanie Pfirman, Martin Stute, Bill Hahn,
Dallas Abbott, and Chris Scholz
I. Thesis structure | II. Crosscutting Issues | III. Editing Your Thesis | |||
Title Page | What We Are Looking For | Copy Editing | |||
Abstract | Planning Ahead for Your Thesis | Content Editing | |||
Table of Contents | Writing for an Audience | Avoiding Ambiguity | |||
List of Figures | Skimming vs. Reading | Thesis Length | |||
List of Tables | Order of Writing | Writing for an International Audience | |||
Introduction | Figures and Tables | ||||
Methods | Tying the Text to the Data | ||||
Results | Giving Credit | ||||
Discussion | Final Thesis | ||||
Conclusions | Resources | ||||
Recommendations | |||||
Acknowledgments | |||||
References | |||||
Appendices |
Title Page
Title (including subtitle), author, institution, department, date of
delivery, research mentor(s) and advisor, their instututions and
email adresses
Abstract
|
Table of Contents
|
Page # | |
List of Figures | xxx |
List of Tables | |
Introduction subheads ...? | |
Methods subheads ...? | |
Results subheads ...? | |
Discussion subheads ...? | |
Conclusion | |
Recommendations | |
Acknowledgments | |
References | |
Appendices |
List of Figures
List page numbers of all figures.
The list should include a short title for each figure but not the
whole caption.
List of Tables
List page numbers of all tables.
The list should include a short title for each table but not the
whole caption.
Introduction
You can't write a good introduction until you know what the body of
the paper says. Consider writing the introductory section(s) after
you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before.
Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction.
This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to
motivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an
important/interesting scientific problem that your paper either
solves or addresses. You should draw the reader in and make them
want to read the rest of the paper.
The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous
research in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or
ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most
recent and relevant work. You should then go on to explain why
more work was necessary (your work, of course.)
What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your paper?
Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original work and interpretation/analysis by you. Break up the introduction section into logical segments by using subheads. |
Methods What belongs in the "methods" section of a scientific paper?
The methods section should answering the following questions and caveats:
Citations in this section should be limited to data sources and references of where to find more complete descriptions of procedures. Do not include descriptions of results. |
Results
|
Note: Results vs. Discussion Sections
Quarantine your observations from your interpretations. The writer
must make it crystal clear to the reader which statements are
observation and which are interpretation. In most circumstances,
this is best accomplished by physically separating statements about
new observations from statements about the meaning or significance
of those observations. Alternatively, this goal can be accomplished
by careful use of phrases such as "I infer ..." vast bodies of
geological literature became obsolete with the advent of plate
tectonics; the papers that survived are those in which observations
were presented in stand-alone fashion, unmuddied by whatever ideas
the author might have had about the processes that caused the
observed phenomena.
How do you do this?
Why?
|
Discussion Start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results. The discussion section should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following questions and caveats:
This section should be rich in references to similar work and background needed to interpret results. However, interpretation/discussion section(s) are often too long and verbose. Is there material that does not contribute to one of the elements listed above? If so, this may be material that you will want to consider deleting or moving. Break up the section into logical segments by using subheads. |
Conclusions
|
Recommendations
|
Acknowledgments Advisor(s) and anyone who helped you:
|
References
authors (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis) of the first author followed by et al. and then the date of the publication order using the following format for different types of material: composition of the egg capsules of the whelk. Nature, 210, 436-437. (1997) Commonly asked questions about ozone. http://www.noaa.gov/public-affairs/grounders/ozo1.html, 9/27/97. (1996) Undergraduate research at Barnard and Columbia, Journal of Research, 11, 213-214. biology. Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 194pp. ciliary structure and function. In: Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa, Vol. 3 (S.H. Hutner, editor), Academic Press, New York, 131-198. Data Analysis, Barnard College, Oct 2, 1997. and G. Bonani (1995) A high altitude continental paleotemperature record derived from noble gases dissolved in groundwater from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. Quat. Res., 43, 209-220. issue, A2. authors behind their last names, e.g. Pfirman, S.L., Stute, M., Simpson, H.J., and Hays, J (1996) Undergraduate research at ...... |
Appendices
|
What Are We Looking For?
We are looking for a critical analysis. We want you to answer a
scientific question or hypothesis. We would like you to gather
evidence -- from various sources -- to allow you to make
interpretations and judgments. Your approach/methods should be
carefully designed to come to closure. Your results should be
clearly defined and discussed in the context of your topic. Relevant
literature should be cited. You should place your analysis in a
broader context, and highlight the implications (regional, global,
etc.) of your work. We are looking for a well-reasoned line of
argument, from your initial question, compilation of relevant
evidence, setting data in a general/universal context, and finally
making a judgment based on your analysis. Your thesis should be
clearly written and in the format described below.
Planning Ahead for Your Thesis
If at all possible, start your thesis research during the summer
between your junior and senior year - or even earlier - with an
internship, etc. ... then work on filling in background material and
lab work during the fall so that you're prepared to write and
present your research during the spring . The best strategy is to
pick a project that you are interested in, but also that a faculty
member or other professional is working on. This person will become
your research mentor and this gives you someone to talk with and get
background material from. If you're unsure about the selection of a
project, let us know and we'll try to connect you with someone.
Writing for an Audience Who is your audience?
|
Skimming vs. Reading
Because of the literature explosion, papers more skimmed than read.
Skimming involves reading the abstract, and looking at the figures
and figure captions. Therefore, you should construct your paper so
that it can be understood by skimming, i.e., the conclusions, as
written in your abstract, can be understood by study of the figures
and captions. The text fills out the details for the more interested
reader.
Order of Writing Your thesis is not written in the same order as it is presented in. The following gives you one idea how to proceed.
Here is another approach.
|
Figures and Tables
|
Tying the Text to the Data "Show them, don't just tell them…" Ideally, every result claimed in the text should be documented with data, usually data presented in tables or figures. If there are no data provided to support a given statement of result or observation, consider adding more data, or deleting the unsupported "observation." Examine figure(s) or table(s) pertaining to the result(s). Assess whether:
|
How does one fairly and accurately indicate who has made what
contributions towards the results and interpretations presented in
your paper?: by referencing, authorship, and acknowledgements.
Different types of errors:
- direct quotes or illustrations without quotation marks,
without attribution - direct quotes without quotation marks, with attribution
- concepts/ideas without attribution
- concepts/ideas with sloppy attribution
- omitting or fabricating data or results
Check references carefully and reread reference works prior to
publication. The first time you read something, you will consciously
remember some things, but may subconsciously take in other aspects.
It is important to cross check your conscious memory against your
citations.
See also:
D. Kennedy, 1985, On Academic Authorship
Sigma Xi, 1984, Honor in Science
Yale University pamphlet on plagiarism
Final Thesis
|
Resources
|
Even a rough draft should be edited.
Copy Editing
|
Content Editing
|
Avoiding ambiguity
|
Thesis length Write for brevity rather than length. The goal is the shortest possible paper that contains all information necessary to describe the work and support the interpretation. Avoid unnecessary repetition and irrelevant tangents. Necessary repetition: the main theme should be developed in the introduction as a motivation or working hypothesis. It is then developed in the main body of the paper, and mentioned again in the discussion section (and, of course, in the abstract and conclusions). Some suggestions on how to shorten your paper:
Although it varies considerably from project to project, average thesis length is about 40 pages of text plus figures. This total page count includes all your text as well as the list of references, but it does not include any appendices. These generalizations should not be taken too seriously, especially if you are working on a labor-intensive lab project. If you have any questions about whether your project is of sufficient scope, consult one of us early on. |
Writing for an International Audience
Ukrainian version of this document Russian version of this document |
by: martins@ldeo.columbia.edu
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